The History of Science and Technology in Ancient China

Four great Chinese inventions: First, the compass was used for warfare and divination. Second was gunpowder. Third was paper making and the fourth was printing. Gunpowder was used in fireworks initially. Paper making provided a means for administration and later was used for printing money. Finally, printing itself was used to support religions and elite culture, particularly Buddhism. This was a belief system with an evangelical side and printing was widely used to spread the word of Buddhism.

Science as it was practiced in China compared to Europe: Perhaps the most important commonality was that science was not directly linked to technology. Science was pursued as an end in itself by people who were interested in understanding how the natural world works. It was not used for making technological advances. Scientists were the literate elite and technology was the work of craftsmen. Science in traditional China was not influenced by philosophy and theology unlike in Europe where they had a large impact on the way science was practiced. In Europe, science was part of the search for God's design, to interpret God's work and systematic and rational knowledge. In China, philosophy and theology had little to do with the way science was practiced or it was more of a social philosophy, relating to how humans and people should conduct themselves in everyday life. This is what Confucius taught and what many of the eminent Chinese scholars concerned themselves with. The second main difference was that the Chinese did not claim universal knowledge but still sought to make their knowledge as perfect as possible. European science did seek to claim universal knowledge. When they found out about the natural world, they sought to apply it to all people, all cultures, and all places.

Mathematics was not considered a pure science but was a practical tool for counting. It was applied in a variety of domains, including surveying, in determining volume of liquids, in calculating taxes, and so on. Some proofs were developed but interest in logical and axiomatic proofs was more prevalent in Europe. In traditional China, the abacus was used. The precursor to the abacus was a system of calculating rods on square surfaces, similar to a chessboard design.

Astronomy had an extremely important place to play in traditional Chinese society because a Chinese ruler had to maintain good relations with the cosmic order and this was the basis for the Chinese ruler to rule over his citizens. If the emperor lacked virtue, there would be disorder on Earth. The relationship between the sky and the earth was believed to be very close. The tasks of astronomy were twofold:  to accurately calculate regular movement of objects in the sky for the calendar and to observe unpredictable events and interpret them for their political significance. The Imperial Court could interpret events the way they wished in order to coincide with what the ruler was doing on Earth. Because of the political significance, astronomy and astrology had a very important role to play in the imperial court.
There were some notable Chinese achievements in astronomy. First was the invention of accurate observation instruments. Second was the invention of water clocks, the clock drive, and a way of keeping accurate record of eclipses. They also predicted supernova, or new stars, comets, and even sunspots. The Chinese created an advanced coordinate system oriented towards the equator and the poles which helped them locate the position of the earth within the universe more accurately. They were among the first to propose an early conception of a boundless universe, where stars floated in empty space. This idea was lost in later dynasties.

Harmony or the idea of harmonics, more generally speaking, is concerned with the dimensions of resonant pipes, ritual bells and stone chimes. It was also used for mathematical relations to standardize measures and length.  Early on, the Chinese studied the mathematical relations between musical sounds, rhythm and the consistency of musical sounds and also the physical arrangement.

Traditional Chinese society was relatively advanced in medicine. It is based on data collected over centuries and many people still believe strongly in values of traditional Chinese medicine. Herbs are used to cure or prevent diseases. There is a body of systematic, but holistic, knowledge with theories based on yin and yang and balancing bodily fluids to ensure that the orientation and flow of bodily fluids is in harmony. The emphasis is more on prevention rather than cure. In traditional China, medicine was practiced particularly for the elite, the imperial court and rich families. Common people had access to folk medicine.

Alchemy was a common notion both in Europe and in China.  Particularly, the emperor wanted to prolong his life for as long as possible so elixirs were prepared in hopes of eternal life. The development of pharmacology, which also led to some chemical discoveries such as gunpowder, was important. Internal alchemy used meditation to control the flow of liquids and of movement within one's body. The objectives of alchemy were different from scientific discovery. They wanted to understand the cosmic cycles and understand peoples’ relationship to the cosmos to try to obtain immortality. So Western and Chinese medicine is based on contrasting rationality, theory and methodology.

Techniques like acupuncture are still popular and the knowledge accumulated in traditional Chinese herbal medicine has been useful in pharmaceutical research. Many medicines used in the West today are based on traditional Chinese medicines.

Geomancy and siteing was an important part of the way science was practiced in traditional China. This is the application of principles of yin and yang and “the five phases” to land and building configurations. The five phases are earth, water, fire, metal, and wood. They are used to understand our place in the world and to have a better appreciation for design and planning homes and villages. Geomancy and siteing is an idea that's relevant not only for geography but also for the resolution of social conflicts.

The compass is one of the extremely old, great Chinese inventions. Pointers were mentioned as far back as 600 BC and initially, lodestone, or magnetic stone compasses were used. Other shapes and pointers were used much later. Today, compasses can be very elaborate with many features. In traditional Chinese society, they were used for navigation, particularly after the year 1000 but even before then. They were also used in with the principles of geomancy for siteing and for resolution of conflicts. The compass is also a Feng Shui instrument. It is used to interpret the “character” of a location.
from Coursera course, Science and Technology and Society in China. Week 1. by Naubahar Sharif, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology